The following
definitions are provided for educational purposes only. They are not in
any way meant to serve as legal or official definitions, nor are they
meant to serve as standard market definitions. In practice, terminology
can differ across firms and across market segments.
1. What is a derivative?
2. Major
derivative categories
3. How do
privately negotiated (OTC) derivatives differ from futures?
4. Product
description: Forward contracts
5. Definition:
Trade date
6. Definition:
Notional principal
7. Product
description: Forward rate agreements (FRA)
8. Short-term
interest rates: Libor
9. What is a swap?
10. Product
description: Interest rate swaps
11. Risks
associated with interest rate swaps
12. Suppose a
client enters into an interest rate swap with a derivatives dealer to
protect against rates rising by locking in a fixed rate. Doesn’t that
mean the dealer expects rates to fall? Otherwise, why would the dealer
take on the risk of losing money?
13. The value
of an interest rate swap
14. Credit
risks associated with swaps
15. What is
the actual amount at risk in a swap?
16. Product
description: Options
17. How
do options differ from swaps and forwards?
18. Credit
exposures associated with options
19. Is
an option a form of insurance?
20. Product
description: Interest rate options
21. Currency
derivatives
22. Product
description: Cross-currency swaps
23. What
is a credit derivative?
24. Product
description: Credit default swaps
25. What risks does do
the parties to a credit default swap give up and what risks do they
take on?
26. Product
description: Total return swaps
27. What
risks does do the parties to a total return swap give up and what risks
do they take on?
28. Why is derivatives documentation
(such as the ISDA Master Agreement) important?
29.
Definition: Payment netting
30. Definition: Close-out netting
31. What is
the status of an individual transaction under the ISDA Master Agreement?
Product Descriptions and some Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is a derivative?
A derivative is a risk-shifting agreement, the value of which is
derived from the value of an underlying asset. The underlying
asset could be a physical commodity, an interest rate, a company’s
stock, a stock index, a currency, or virtually any other tradable
instrument upon which two parties can agree.
2. Major derivative categories
Derivatives fall into two categories. One consists of customized,
privately negotiated derivatives, which are known generically as over-the-counter
(OTC) derivatives or, even more generically, as swaps.
The other category consists of standardized, exchange-traded
derivatives, known generically as futures. In addition, there
are various types of product within each of the two categories as
described below.
3. How do privately negotiated (OTC)
derivatives differ from futures?
First, the terms of a futures contract—including delivery places and
dates, volume, technical specifications, and trading and credit
procedures—are standardized for each type of contract. For swaps, the
same characteristics are subject to negotiation by the parties to the
contracts. Second, futures contracts are always traded on an exchange,
while swaps are traded on a bilateral basis. Third, those who engage in
futures transactions assume exposure to default by the exchange’s
clearinghouse; for OTC derivatives, the exposure is to default by the
counterparty. Fourth, credit risk mitigation measures, such as regular
mark-to-market and margining, are automatically required for futures
but optional for swaps. Finally, futures are generally subject to a
single regulatory regime in one jurisdiction, while swaps—although
usually transacted by regulated firms—are transacted across
jurisdictional boundaries and are primarily governed by the contractual
relations between the parties. Various products, including futures
contracts and exchange-traded options, fall within the generic category
of futures, but all have the common characteristics described above.
The definitions that follow refer exclusively to privately negotiated
(OTC) derivatives.
4. Product description: Forward contracts
A forward is a customized, privately negotiated agreement between two
parties to exchange an asset or cash flows at a specified future date
at a price agreed on the trade date. Entering a forward contract
typically does not require the payment of a fee.
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5. Definition: Trade date
The trade date is the date on which the parties agree to the terms of a
contract. The effective date is the date on which the parties
begin calculating accrued obligations, such as fixed and floating
interest payment obligations on an interest rate swap.
6. Definition: Notional principal
Notional principal, or notional amount, of a derivative contract is a
hypothetical underlying quantity upon which interest rate or other
payment obligations are computed.
7. Product description: Forward rate
agreements (FRA)
A forward rate agreement is a forward contact on a short-term interest
rate, usually Libor, in which cash flow obligations at maturity are
calculated on a notional amount and based on the difference between a
predetermined forward rate and the market rate prevailing on
that date. The settlement date of an FRA is the date on which cash flow
obligations are determined.
8. Short-term interest rates: Libor
Libor, which stands for London Interbank Offered Rate, is the interest
rate paid on interbank deposits in the international money markets
(also called the Eurocurrency markets). Because Eurocurrency
deposits priced at Libor are almost continually traded in highly liquid
markets, Libor is commonly used as a benchmark for short-term interest
rates in setting loan and deposit rates and as the floating rate on an
interest rate swap.
9. What is a swap?
A swap is a privately negotiated agreement between two parties to
exchange cash flows at specified intervals (payment dates) during the
agreed-upon life of the contract (maturity or tenor). Entering a swap
typically does not require the payment of a fee.
10. Product description: Interest rate swaps
An interest rate swap is an agreement to exchange interest rate cash
flows, calculated on a notional principal amount, at specified
intervals (payment dates) during the life of the agreement.
Each party’s payment obligation is computed using a different interest
rate. In an interest rate swap, the notional principal is never
exchanged. Although there are no standardized swaps, a plain vanilla
swap typically refers to a generic interest rate swap in which one
party pays a fixed rate and one party pays a floating rate (usually
Libor).
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11. Risks associated with interest rate swaps
Typically, a party entering a swap gives up (or takes on) exposure to a
given interest rate. At the same time, each party take on the
risk—known as counterparty credit risk—that the other party will
default at some time during the life of the contract.
12. Suppose a client enters into an interest
rate swap with a derivatives dealer to protect against rates rising by
locking in a fixed rate. Doesn’t that mean the dealer expects rates to
fall? Otherwise, why would the dealer take on the risk of losing money?
The dealer’s view on interest rates does not matter. When the dealer
assumes a client’s risk, the dealer typically lays off—that is,
hedges—that risk with an offsetting transaction. Suppose, for example,
a dealer enters into a swap in which the client pays a fixed rate to
the dealer and the dealer pays a floating rate to the client. The
dealer could hedge the risk by entering into an offsetting swap with
another client or dealer. Or, it could take a Treasury security
position with interest rate exposure that offsets the swap. Or, it
could take an offsetting futures position. Over the entire portfolio
some risks might be uncovered at various times—which is essential to
the existence of a liquid market—but such risks are carefully monitored
and controlled by dealers.
13. The value of an interest rate swap
The value of an interest rate swap to a counterparty is the net
difference between the present value of the payments the
counterparty expects to receive and the present value of the payments
the counterparty expect to make. At the inception of the swap, the
value is generally zero to both parties, and becomes positive to one
and negative to the other depending on the movement of interest rates. Present
value is the value of a quantity to be received in the future,
adjusted for the time value of money (interest foregone while waiting
for the quantity).
14. Credit risks associated with swaps
Loss on a swap occurs if two things happen: First, the counterparty
must default; and second, the swap must have a positive value to the
party that does not default. The amount of the loss depends on the
credit exposure of the swap.
15. What is the actual amount at risk in a
swap?
The credit exposure of a swap is the amount that would be
lost if default were to occur immediately. Credit exposure is generally
equal to the current market value if positive, and zero if current
market value is negative. Swap participants also calculate future
exposures of swaps, which are potential positive values during the life
of the swap; future exposures are used to establish credit charges
(expected exposure) and credit limit usage (peak exposure).
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16. Product description: Options
An option is an agreement that gives the buyer, who pays a fee (premium),
the right—but not the obligation—to buy or sell a specified amount of
an underlying asset at an agreed upon price (strike or exercise
price) on or until the expiration of the contract (expiry).
A call option is an option to buy, and a put option is an option to
sell.
17. How do options differ from swaps and
forwards?
In a forward or swap, the parties lock in a price (e.g., a forward
price or a fixed swap rate) and are subject to symmetric and offsetting
payment obligations. In an option, the buyer purchases protection from
changes in a price or rate in one direction while retaining the ability
to benefit from movement of the price or rate in the other direction.
In other words, the option involves asymmetric cash flow obligations.
18. Credit exposures associated with options
For a buyer of an option, the amount at risk is generally the value
(premium) of the option at default. For the seller of an option, there
is no credit exposure.
19. Is an option a form of insurance?
Options differ from insurance in that options do not require one party
to suffer an actual loss for payment to occur. In addition, the owner
of an option need not have an insurable interest—such as ownership in
the underlying asset—in the option.
20. Product description: Interest rate options
In an interest rate option, the underlying asset is related to the
change in an interest rate. In an interest rate cap, for example, the
seller agrees to compensate the buyer for the amount by which an
underlying short-term rate exceeds a specified rate on a series of
dates during the life of the contract. In an interest rate floor,
the seller agrees to compensate the buyer for a rate falling below the
specified rate during the contract period. A collar is a
combination of a long (short) cap and short (long) floor, struck at
different rates. Finally, a swap option (swaption) gives the
holder the right—but not the obligation—to enter an interest rate swap
at an agreed upon fixed rate until or at some future date.
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21. Currency derivatives
A currency forward is a contract in which the parties agree
to exchange cash flows in two different currencies at an agreed upon
date in the future. A cross-currency swap is essentially an
interest rate swap in which each side is denominated in a different
currency. And a currency option is a contract that gives the
buyer the right, but not the obligation, to exchange one currency for
another at a predetermined exchange rate on or until the maturity date.
22. Product description: Cross-currency swaps
A cross-currency swap is an interest rate swap in which the cash flows
are in different currencies. Upon initiation of a cross-currency swap,
the counterparties make an initial exchange of notional principals in
the two currencies. During the life of the swap, each party pays
interest (in the currency of the principal received) to the other. And
at the maturity of the swap, the parties make a final exchange of the
initial principal amounts, reversing the initial exchange at the same
spot rate. A cross-currency swap is sometimes confused with a
traditional FX swap, which is simply a spot currency
transaction that will be reversed at a predetermined date with an
offsetting forward transaction; the two are arranged as a single
transaction.
23. What is a credit derivative?
A credit derivative is a privately negotiated agreement that explicitly
shifts credit risk from one party to the other.
24. Product description: Credit default swaps
A credit default swap is a credit derivative contract in which one
party (protection buyer) pays an periodic fee to another
party (protection seller) in return for compensation for
default (or similar credit event) by a reference entity.
The reference entity is not a party to the credit default swap. It is
not necessary for the protection buyer to suffer an actual loss to be
eligible for compensation if a credit event occurs.
25.
What risks does do the parties to a credit default swap give up and
what risks do they take on?
The protection buyer gives up the risk of default by the reference
entity, and takes on the risk of simultaneous default by both the
protection seller and the reference credit. The protection seller takes
on the default risk of the reference entity, similar to the risk of a
direct loan to the reference entity.
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26. Product description: Total return swaps
A total return swap is a agreement in which one party (total return
payer) transfers the total economic performance of a reference
obligation to the other party (total return receiver). Total economic
performance includes income from interest and fees, gains or losses
from market movements, and credit losses.
27. What risks does do the parties to a total
return swap give up and what risks do they take on?
The total return receiver assumes the entire economic exposure—that is,
both market and credit exposure--to the reference asset. The total
return payer—often the owner of the reference obligation—gives up
economic exposure to the performance of the reference asset and in
return takes on counterparty credit exposure to the total return
receiver in the event of a default or fall in value of the reference
asset.
28. Why is
derivatives documentation (such as the ISDA Master Agreement) important?
Swaps and related OTC derivatives combine characteristics of loans with
characteristics of traded capital market instruments. On the one hand,
each swap transaction creates a credit relationship between the
counterparties, the terms of which need to be negotiated and documented
just as would the terms of a traditional loan. On the other hand, swaps
are traded in the market and might involve repeated interaction between
two counterparties; renegotiation of credit terms for each transaction
would be costly and would act as a drag on trading activity.
Consequently, market participants developed the ISDA Master Agreement
(click here
for a history), which would contain the ‘non-economic’ terms—such as
representations and warranties, events of default, and termination
events—leaving counterparties free to negotiate only the ‘economic’
terms—that is, rate or price, notional amount, maturity, collateral,
and so on. Additional benefits of the ISDA Master Agreement include
provisions that facilitate payment netting and close-out netting.
29. Definition: Payment netting
Payment netting reduces payments due on the same date and in the same
currency to a single net payment.
30.
Definition: Close-out netting
If a counterparty to an ISDA Master Agreement defaults, the close-out
netting provisions of the ISDA Master Agreement provide that offsetting
credit exposures between the two parties will be combined into a single
net payment from one party to the other.
31. What is the status of an individual
transaction under the ISDA Master Agreement?
In jurisdictions where close-out netting is enforceable, all
transactions under the ISDA Master Agreement constitute a ‘single
agreement’ between the two counterparties instead of being separate
contracts. The confirmation of a transaction serves as evidence of that
transaction, and each transaction is incorporated into the ISDA Master
Agreement.
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