The Search for the Manchurian Candidate
John Marks
11. Hypnosis
No mind-control technique has more captured popular
imagination-and kindled fears-than hypnosis. Men have long dreamed they
could use overwhelming hypnotic powers to compel others to do their bidding.
And when CIA officials institutionalized that dream in the early Cold War
Days, they tried, like modern-day Svengalis, to use hypnosis to force their
favors on unwitting victims.
One group of professional experts, as well as popular
novelists, argued that hypnosis would lead to major breakthroughs in spying.
Another body of experts believed the opposite. The Agency men, who did
not fully trust the academics anyway, listened to both points of view and
kept looking for applications which fit their own special needs. To them,
hypnosis offered too much promise not to be pursued, but finding the answers
was such an elusive and dangerous process that 10 years after the program
started CIA officials were still searching for practical uses.
The CIA's first behavioral research czar, Morse
Allen of ARTICHOKE, was intrigued by hypnosis. He read everything he could
get his hands on, and in 1951 he went to New York for a four-day course
from a well-known stage hypnotist. This hypnotist had taken the Svengali
legend to heart, and he bombarded Allen with tales of how he used hypnosis
to seduce young women. He told the ARTICHOKE chief that he had convinced
one mesmerized lady that he was her husband and that she desperately wanted
him. That kind of deception has a place in covert operations, and Morse
Allen was sufficiently impressed to report back to his bosses the hypnotist's
claim that "he spent approximately five nights a week away from home engaging
in sexual intercourse."
Apart from the bragging, the stage hypnotist did
give Morse Allen a short education in how to capture a subject's attention
and induce a trance. Allen returned to Washington more convinced than ever
of the benefits of working hypnosis into the ARTICHOKE repertory and of
the need to build a defense against it. With permission from above, he
decided to take his hypnosis studies further, right in his own office.
He asked young CIA secretaries to stay after work and ran them through
the hypnotic paces-proving to his own satisfaction that he could make them
do whatever he wanted. He had secretaries steal SECRET files and pass them
on to total strangers, thus violating the most basic CIA security rules.
He got them to steal from each other and to start fires. He made one of
them report to the bedroom of a strange man and then go into a deep sleep.
"This activity clearly indicates that individuals under hypnosis might
be compromised and blackmailed," Allen wrote.
On February 19, 1954, Morse Allen simulated the
ultimate experiment in hypnosis: the creation of a "Manchurian Candidate,"
or programmed assassin. Allen's "victim" was a secretary whom he put into
a deep trance and told to keep sleeping until he ordered otherwise. He
then hypnotized a second secretary and told her that if she could not wake
up her friend, "her rage would be so great that she would not hesitate
to 'kill.' " Allen left a pistol nearby, which the secretary had no way
of knowing was unloaded. Even though she had earlier expressed a fear of
firearms of any kind, she picked up the gun and "shot" her sleeping friend.
After Allen brought the "killer" out of her trance, she had apparent amnesia
for the event, denying she would ever shoot anyone.
With this experiment, Morse Allen took the testing
as far as he could on a make-believe basis, but he was neither satisfied
nor convinced that hypnosis would produce such spectacular results in an
operational setting. All he felt he had proved was that an impressionable
young volunteer would accept a command from a legitimate authority figure
to take an action she may have sensed would not end in tragedy. She presumably
trusted the CIA enough as an institution and Morse Allen as an individual
to believe he would not let her do anything wrong. The experimental setting,
in effect, legitimated her behavior and prevented it from being truly antisocial.
Early in 1954, Allen almost got his chance to try
the crucial test. According to a CIA document, the subject was to be a
35-year-old, well-educated foreigner who had once worked for a friendly
secret service, probably the CIA itself. He had now shifted his loyalty
to another government, and the CIA was quite upset with him. The Agency
plan was to hypnotize him and program him into making an assassination
attempt. He would then be arrested at the least for attempted murder and
"thereby disposed of." The scenario had several holes in it, as the operators
presented it to the ARTICHOKE team. First, the subject was to be involuntary
and unwitting, and as yet no one had come up with a consistently effective
way of hypnotizing such people. Second, the ARTICHOKE team would have only
limited custody of the subject, who was to be snatched from a social event.
Allen understood that it would probably take months of painstaking work
to prepare the man for a sophisticated covert operation. The subject was
highly unlikely to perform after just one command. Yet, so anxious were
the ARTICHOKE men to try the experiment that they were willing to go ahead
even under these unfavorable conditions: "The final answer was that in
view of the fact that successful completion of this proposed act of attempted
assassination was insignificant to the overall project; to wit, whether
it was even carried out or not, that under 'crash conditions' and appropriate
authority from Headquarters, the ARTICHOKE team would undertake the problem
in spite of the operational limitations."
This operation never took place. Eager to be unleashed,
Morse Allen kept requesting prolonged access to operational subjects, such
as the double agents and defectors on whom he was allowed to work a day
or two. Not every double agent would do. The candidate had to be among
the one person in five who made a good hypnotic subject, and he needed
to have a dissociative tendency to separate part of his personality from
the main body of his consciousness. The hope was to take an existing ego
state-such as an imaginary childhood playmate-and build it into a separate
personality, unknown to the first. The hypnotist would communicate directly
with this schizophrenic offshoot and command it to carry out specific deeds
about which the main personality would know nothing. There would be inevitable
leakage between the two personalities, particularly in dreams; but if the
hypnotists were clever enough, he could build in cover stories and safety
valves which would prevent the subject from acting inconsistently.
All during the spring and summer of 1954, Morse
Allen lobbied for permission to try what he called "terminal experiments"
in hypnosis, including one along the following scenario:
CIA officials would recruit an agent in a friendly
foreign country where the Agency could count on the cooperation of the
local police force. CIA case officers would train the agent to pose as
a leftist and report on the local communist party. During training, a skilled
hypnotist would hypnotize him under the guise of giving him medical treatment
(the favorite ARTICHOKE cover for hypnosis). The hypnotist would then provide
the agent with information and tell him to forget it all when he snapped
out of the trance. Once the agent had been properly conditioned and prepared,
he would be sent into action as a CIA spy. Then Agency officials would
tip off the local police that the man was a dangerous communist agent,
and he would be arrested. Through their liaison arrangement with the police,
Agency case officers would be able to watch and even guide the course of
the interrogation. In this way, they could answer many of their questions
about hypnosis on a live guinea pig who believed his life was in danger.
Specifically, the men from ARTICHOKE wanted to know how well hypnotic amnesia
held up against torture. Could the amnesia be broken with drugs? One document
noted that the Agency could even send in a new hypnotist to try his hand
at cracking through the commands of the first one. Perhaps the most cynical
part of the whole scheme came at the end of the proposal: "In the event
that the agent should break down and admit his connection with US intelligence,
we a) deny this absolutely and advise the agent's disposal, or b) indicate
that the agent may have been dispatched by some other organ of US intelligence
and that we should thereafter run the agent jointly with [the local intelligence
service]."
An ARTICHOKE team was scheduled to carry out field
tests along these lines in the summer of 1954. The planning got to an advanced
stage, with the ARTICHOKE command center in Washington cabling overseas
for the "time, place, and bodies available for terminal experiments." Then
another cable complained of the "diminishing numbers" of subjects available
for these tests. At this point, the available record becomes very fuzzy.
The minutes of an ARTICHOKE working group meeting indicate that a key Agency
official-probably the station chief in the country where the experiments
were going to take place-had second thoughts. One participant at the meeting,
obviously rankled by the obstructionism, said if this nay-sayer did not
change his attitude, ARTICHOKE officials would have the Director himself
order the official to go along.
Although short-term interrogations of unwitting
subjects with drugs and hypnosis (the "A" treatment) continued, the more
complicated tests apparently never did get going under the ARTICHOKE banner.
By the end of the year, 1954, Allen Dulles took the behavioral-research
function away from Morse Allen and gave it to Sid Gottlieb and the men
from MKULTRA. Allen had directly pursued the goal of creating a Manchurian
Candidate, which he clearly believed was possible. MKULTRA officials were
just as interested in finding ways to assert control over people, but they
had much less faith in the frontal-assault approach pushed by Allen. For
them, finding the Manchurian Candidate became a figurative exercise. They
did not give up the dream. They simply pursued it in smaller steps, always
hoping to increase the percentages in their favor. John Gittinger, the
MKULTRA case officer on hypnosis, states, "Predictable absolute control
is not possible on a particular individual. Any psychologist, psychiatrist,
or preacher can get control over certain kinds of individuals, but that's
not a predictable, definite thing." Gittinger adds that despite his belief
to this effect, he felt he had to give "a fair shake" to people who wanted
to try out ideas to the contrary.
Gottlieb and his colleagues had already been doing
hypnosis research for two years. They did a few basic experiments in the
office, as Morse Allen did, but they farmed out most of the work to a young
Ph.D. candidate at the University of Minnesota, Alden Sears. Sears, who
later moved his CIA study project to the University of Denver, worked with
student subjects to define the nature of hypnosis. Among many other things,
he looked into several of the areas that would be building blocks in the
creation of a Manchurian Candidate. Could a hypnotist induce a totally
separate personality? Could a subject be sent on missions he would not
remember unless cued by the hypnotist? Sears, who has since become a Methodist
minister, refused to talk about methods he experimented with to build second
identities.[1] By 1957, he wrote
that the experiments that needed to be done "could not be handled in the
University situation." Unlike Morse Allen, he did not want to perform the
terminal experiments.
Milton Kline, a New York psychologist who says he
also did not want to cross the ethical line but is sure the intelligence
agencies have, served as an unpaid consultant to Sears and other CIA hypnosis
research. Nothing Sears or others found disabused him of the idea that
the Manchurian Candidate is possible. "It cannot be done by everyone,"
says Kline, "It cannot be done consistently, but it can be done."
A onetime president of the American Society for
Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Kline was one of many outside experts
to whom Gittinger and his colleagues talked. Other consultants, with equally
impressive credentials, rejected Kline's views. In no other area of the
behavioral sciences was there so little accord on basic questions. "You
could find an expert who would agree with everything," says Gittinger.
"Therefore, we tried to get everybody."
The MKULTRA men state that they got too many unsolicited
suggestions on how to use hypnosis in covert operations. "The operators
would ask us for easy solutions," recalls a veteran. "We therefore kept
a laundry list of why they couldn't have what they wanted. We spent a lot
of time telling some young kid whose idea we had heard a hundred times
why it wouldn't work. We would wind up explaining why you couldn't have
a free lunch." This veteran mentions an example: CIA operators put a great
deal of time and money into servicing "dead drops" (covert mail pickup
points, such as a hollow tree) in the Soviet Union. If a collector was
captured, he was likely to give away the locations. Therefore Agency men
suggested that TSS find a way to hypnotize these secret mailmen, so they
could withstand interrogation and even torture if arrested.
Morse Allen had wanted to perform the "terminal
experiment" to see if a hypnotically induced amnesia would stand up to
torture. Gittinger says that as far as he knows, this experiment was never
carried out. "I still like to think we were human beings enough that this
was not something we played with," says Gittinger. Such an experiment could
have been performed, as Allen suggested, by friendly police in a country
like Taiwan or Paraguay. CIA men did at least discuss joint work in hypnosis
with a foreign secret service in 1962.[2]
Whether they went further simply cannot be said.
Assuming the amnesia would hold, the MKULTRA veteran
says the problem was how to trigger it. Perhaps the Russian phrase meaning
"You're under arrest" could be used as a preprogrammed cue, but what if
the police did not use these words as they captured the collector? Perhaps
the physical sensation of handcuffs being snapped on could do it, but a
metal watchband could have the same effect. According to the veteran, in
the abstract, the scheme sounded fine, but in practicality, a foolproof
way of triggering the amnesia could not be found. "You had to accept that
when someone is caught, they're going to tell some things," he says.
MKULTRA officials, including Gittinger, did recommend
the use of hypnosis in operational experiments on at least one occasion.
In 1959 an important double agent, operating outside his homeland, told
his Agency case officer that he was afraid to go home again because he
did not think he could withstand the tough interrogation that his government
used on returning overseas agents. In Washington, the operators approached
the TSS men about using hypnosis, backed up with drugs, to change the agent's
attitude. They hoped they could instill in him the "ability or the necessary
will" to hold up under questioning.
An MKULTRA official-almost certainly Gittinger-held
a series of meetings over a two-week period with the operators and wrote
that the agent was "a better than average" hypnotic subject, but that his
goal was to get out of intelligence work: The agent "probably can be motivated
to make at least one return visit to his homeland by application of any
one of a number of techniques, including hypnosis, but he may redefect
in the process." The MKULTRA official continued that hypnosis probably
could not produce an "operationally useful" degree of amnesia for the events
of the recent past or for the hypnotic treatment itself that the agent
"probably has the native ability to withstand ordinary interrogation .
. . provided it is to his advantage to do so."
The MKULTRA office recommended that despite the
relatively negative outlook for the hypnosis, the Agency should proceed
anyway. The operation had the advantage of having a "fail-safe" mechanism
because the level of hypnosis could be tested out before the agent actually
had to return. Moreover, the MKULTRA men felt "that a considerable amount
of useful experience can be gained from this operation which could be used
to improve Agency capability in future applications." In effect, they would
be using hypnosis not as the linchpin of the operation, but as an adjunct
to help motivate the agent.
Since the proposed operation involved the use of
hypnosis and drugs, final approval could only be given by the high-level
Clandestine Services committee set up for this purpose and chaired by Richard
Helms. Permission was not forthcoming
In June 1960 TSS officials launched an expanded
program of operational experiments in hypnosis in cooperation with the
Agency's Counterintelligence Staff. The legendary James Angleton-the prototype
for the title character Saxonton in Aaron Latham's Orchids for Mother
and for Wellington in Victor Marchetti's The Rope Dancer-headed
Counterintelligence, which took on some of the CIA's most sensitive missions
(including the illegal Agency spying against domestic dissidents). Counterintelligence
officials wrote that the hypnosis program could provide a "potential breakthrough
in clandestine technology." Their arrangement with TSS was that the MKULTRA
men would develop the technique in the laboratory, while they took care
of "field experimentation."
The Counterintelligence program had three goals:
(1) to induce hypnosis very rapidly in unwitting subjects; (2) to create
durable amnesia; and (3) to implant durable and operationally useful posthypnotic
suggestion. The Agency released no information on any "field experimentation"
of the latter two goals, which of course are the building blocks of the
Manchurian Candidate. Agency officials provided only one heavily censored
document on the first goal, rapid induction.
In October 1960 the MKULTRA program invested $9,000
in an outside consultant to develop a way of quickly hypnotizing an unwitting
subject. John Gittinger says the process consisted of surprising "somebody
sitting in a chair, putting your hands on his forehead, and telling the
guy to go to sleep." The method worked "fantastically" on certain people,
including some on whom no other technique was effective, and not on others.
"It wasn't that predictable," notes Gittinger, who states he knows nothing
about the field testing.
The test, noted in that one released document, did
not take place until July 1963-a full three years after the Counterintelligence
experimental program began, during which interval the Agency is claiming
that no other field experiments took place. According to a CIA man who
participated in this test, the Counterintelligence Staff in Washington
asked the CIA station in Mexico City to find a suitable candidate for a
rapid induction experiment. The station proposed a low-level agent, whom
the Soviets had apparently doubled. A Counterintelligence man flew in from
Washington and a hypnotic consultant arrived from California. Our source
and a fellow case officer brought the agent to a motel room on a pretext.
"I puffed him up with his importance," says the Agency man. "I said the
bosses wanted to see him and of course give him more money." Waiting in
an adjoining room was the hypnotic consultant. At a prearranged time, the
two case officers gently grabbed hold of the agent and tipped his chair
over until the back was touching the floor. The consultant was supposed
to rush in at that precise moment and apply the technique. Nothing happened.
The consultant froze, unable to do the deed. "You can imagine what we had
to do to cover-up," says the official, who was literally left holding the
agent. "We explained we had heard a noise, got excited, and tipped him
down to protect him. He was so grubby for money he would have believed
any excuse."
There certainly is a huge difference between the
limited aim of this bungled operation and one aimed at building a Manchurian
Candidate. The MKULTRA veteran maintains that he and his colleagues were
not interested in a programmed assassin because they knew in general it
would not work and, specifically, that they could not exert total control.
"If you have one hundred percent control, you have one hundred percent
dependency," he says. "If something happens and you haven't programmed
it in, you've got a problem. If you try to put flexibility in, you lose
control. To the extent you let the agent choose, you don't have control."
He admits that he and his colleagues spent hours running the arguments
on the Manchurian Candidate back and forth. "Castro was naturally our discussion
point," he declares. "Could you get somebody gung-ho enough that they would
go in and get him?" In the end, he states, they decided there were more
reliable ways to kill people. "You can get exactly the same thing from
people who are hypnotizable by many other ways, and you can't get anything
out of people who are not hypnotizable, so it has no use," says Gittinger.
The only real gain in employing a hypnotized killer
would be, in theory, that he would not remember who ordered him to pull
the trigger. Yet, at least in the Castro case, the Cuban leader already
knew who was after him. Moreover, there were plenty of people around willing
to take on the Castro contract. "A well-trained person could do it without
all this mumbo-jumbo," says the MKULTRA veteran. By going to the Mafia
for hitmen, CIA officials in any case found killers who had a built-in
amnesia mechanism that had nothing to do with hypnosis.[3]
The MKULTRA veteran gives many reasons why he believes
the CIA never actually tried a Manchurian Candidate operation, but he acknowledges
that he does not know.[4] If the
ultimate experiments were performed, they would have been handled with
incredible secrecy. It would seem, however, that the same kind of reasoning
that impelled Sid Gottlieb to recommend testing powerful drugs on unwitting
subjects would have led to experimentation along such lines, if not to
create the Manchurian Candidate itself, on some of the building blocks,
or lesser antisocial acts. Even if the MKULTRA men did not think hypnosis
would work operationally, they had not let that consideration prevent them
from trying out numerous other techniques. The MKULTRA chief could even
have used a defensive rationale: He had to find out if the Russians could
plant a "sleeper" killer in our midst, just as Richard Condon's novel discussed.
If the assassin scenario seemed exaggerated, Gottlieb
still would have wanted to know what other uses the Russians might try.
Certainly, he could have found relatively "expendable" subjects, as he
and Morse Allen had for other behavior control experiments. And even if
the MKULTRA men really did restrain themselves, it is unlikely that James
Angleton and his counterintelligence crew would have acted in such a limited
fashion when they felt they were on the verge of a "breakthrough in clandestine
technology."
Notes
Morse Allen's training in hypnosis was described in
Document #A/B, V,28/1, 9 July 1951, Subject [Deleted]. His hypnosis experiments
in the office are described in a long series of memos. See especially #A/B,
III, 2/18, 10 February 1954, Hypnotic Experimentation and Research and
#A/B, II, 10/71, 19 August 1954, Subject: Operational/Security [deleted]
and unnumbered document, 5 May 1955, Subject: Hypnotism and Covert Operations.
The quote on U.S. prisoners passing through Manchuria
came from document #19, 18 June 1953, ARTICHOKE Conference.
Alden Sears' hypnosis work was the subject of MKULTRA
subprojects 5, 25, 29, and 49. See especially 49-28, undated, Proposal
for Research in Hypnosis at the [deleted], June 1, 1956 to May 31, 1957,
49-34, undated, Proposals for Research in Hypnosis at the [deleted], June
1, 1956 to May 31, 1957; 5-11, 28 May 1953, Project MKULTRA, Subproject
5 and 5-13,20 April 1954, Subject: [deleted]. See also Patrick Oster's
article in the Chicago Sun-Times, September 4, 1977, "How CIA 'Hid'
Hypnosis Research."
General background on hypnosis came from interviews
with Alden Sears, Martin Orne, Milton Kline, Ernest Hilgard, Herbert Spiegel,
William Kroger, Jack Tracktir, John Watkins, and Harold Crasilneck. See
Orne's chapter on hypnosis in The Manipulation of Human Behavior,
edited by Albert Biderman and Herbert Zimmer (New York: John Wiley &
Sons; 1961), pp. 169-215.
The contemplated use of hypnosis in an operation
involving a foreign intelligence service is referred to in the Affidavit
by Eloise R. Page, in the case John D. Marks v. Central Intelligence
Agency et al., Civil Action no. 76-2073.
The 1959 proposed use of hypnosis that was approved
by TSS is described in documents #433, 21 August 1959, Possible Use of
Drugs and Hypnosis in [deleted] Operational Case; #434, 27 August 1959,
Comments on [deleted]; and #435, 15 September 1959, Possible Use of Drugs
and Hypnosis in [deleted] Operational Case.
MKULTRA Subproject 128 dealt with the rapid induction
technique. See especially 128-1, undated, Subject: To test a method of
rapid hypnotic induction in simulated and real operational settings (MKULTRA
128).
A long interview with John Gittinger added considerably
to this chapter. Mr. Gittinger had refused earlier to be interviewed directly
by me for this book. Our conversation was limited solely to hypnosis.
Footnotes
1. Sears still maintains the fiction that he thought
he was dealing only with a private foundation, the Geschickter Fund, and
that he knew nothing of the CIA involvement in funding his work. Yet a
CIA document in his MKULTRA subproject says he was "aware of the real purpose"
of the project." Moreover, Sid Gottlieb brought him to Washington in 1954
to demonstrate hypnosis to a select group of Agency officials. (back)
2. Under my Freedom of Information suit, the CIA
specifically denied access to the documents concerning the testing of hypnosis
and psychedelic drugs in cooperation with foreign intelligence agencies.
The justification given was that releasing such documents would reveal
intelligence sources and methods, which are exempted by law. The hypnosis
experiment was never carried out, according to the generic description
of the document which the Agency had to provide in explaining why it had
to be withheld. (back)
3. Referring to this CIA-mob relationship, author
Robert Sam Anson has written, "It was inevitable: Gentlemen wishing to
be killers gravitated to killers wishing to be gentlemen." (back)
4. The veteran admits that none of the arguments
he uses against a conditioned assassin would apply to a programmed "patsy"
whom a hypnotist could walk through a series of seemingly unrelated events-a
visit to a store, a conversation with a mailman, picking a fight at a political
rally. The subject would remember everything that happened to him and be
amnesic only for the fact the hypnotist ordered him to do these things.
There would be no gaping inconsistency in his life of the sort that can
ruin an attempt by a hypnotist to create a second personality. The purpose
of this exercise is to leave a circumstantial trail that will make the
authorities think the patsy committed a particular crime. The weakness
might well be that the amnesia would not hold up under police interrogation,
but that would not matter if the police did not believe his preposterous
story about being hypnotized or if he were shot resisting arrest. Hypnosis
expert Milton Kline says he could create a patsy in three months- an assassin
would take him six. (back)
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